Early conceptions
The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit is a
short story by
Edward Everett Hale,
The Brick Moon. The story is serialized in
The Atlantic Monthly, starting in 1869.
[1][2] The idea surfaces again in
Jules Verne's
The Begum's Fortune (1879).
In 1903
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) published
The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices (in
Russian:
Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами), which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch
spacecraft. He calculated the
orbital speed required for a minimal
orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a
multi-stage rocket fueled by liquid
propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use of
liquid hydrogen and
liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.
In 1928 Slovenian
Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) published his sole book,
The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor (
German:
Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der Raketen-Motor), a plan for a breakthrough into space and a permanent human presence there. He conceived of a space station in detail and calculated its
geostationary orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and discussed communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.
In a 1945
Wireless World article the English science fiction writer
Arthur C. Clarke (1917-2008) described in detail the possible use of
communications satellites for mass communications.
[3] Clarke examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible
orbits and other aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He also suggested that three
geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.
[edit] History of artificial satellites
Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite
The first artificial satellite was
Sputnik 1, launched by the
Soviet Union on October 4 1957, and initiating the
Soviet Sputnik program, with
Sergei Korolev as chief designer and
Kerim Kerimov as his assistant.
[4] This in turn triggered the
Space Race between the
Soviet Union and the
United States.
Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high
atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on
radio-signal distribution in the
ionosphere. Because the satellite's body was filled with pressurized
nitrogen,
Sputnik 1 also provided the first opportunity for
meteoroid detection, as a loss of internal pressure due to meteoroid penetration of the outer surface would have been evident in the temperature data sent back to Earth. The unanticipated announcement of
Sputnik 1's success precipitated the
Sputnik crisis in the
United States and ignited the so-called
Space Race within the
Cold War.
Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a
dog named
Laika.
[5]
In May, 1946,
Project RAND had released the
Preliminary Design of a Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century.
[6] The
United States had been considering launching
orbital satellites since 1945 under the
Bureau of Aeronautics of the
United States Navy. The
United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program."
[7]
On July 29, 1955, the
White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as
Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
Following pressure by the
American Rocket Society, the
National Science Foundation, and the
International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Air Force and Navy were working on
Project Orbiter, which involved using a
Jupiter C rocket to launch a satellite. The project succeeded, and
Explorer 1 became the United States' first satellite on January 31, 1958.
[8]
In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources of the
United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.
[9]
The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the
International Space Station.
[edit] Space Surveillance Network
The
United States Space Surveillance Network (SSN) has been tracking space objects since 1957 when the Soviets opened the space age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then, the SSN has tracked more than 26,000 space objects orbiting Earth. The SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 man-made orbiting objects. The rest have re-entered Earth's atmosphere and disintegrated, or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth. The space objects now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds. About seven percent of the space objects are operational satellites (i.e. ~560 satellites), the rest are
space debris.
[10] USSTRATCOM is primarily interested in the active satellites, but also tracks space debris which upon reentry might otherwise be mistaken for incoming missiles. The SSN tracks space objects that are 10 centimeters in diameter (baseball size) or larger.
[edit] Non-Military Satellite Services
There are three basic categories of non-military satellite services:
[11]
[edit] Fixed Satellite Service
Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmission tasks across all countries and continents between certain points on the Earth’s surface.
[edit] Mobile Satellite Systems
Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to other parts of the world and/or other mobile or stationary communications units, in addition to serving as navigation systems.
[edit] Scientific Research Satellite (commercial and noncommercial)
Scientific research satellites provide us with meteorological information, land survey data (e.g., remote sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.
[edit] Types
- Anti-Satellite weapons/"Killer Satellites" are satellites that are armed, designed to take out enemy warheads, satellites, other space assets. They may have particle weapons, energy weapons, kinetic weapons, nuclear and/or conventional missiles and/or a combination of these weapons.
- Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
- Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.
- Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.
- Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low weights and small sizes.[12] New classifications are used to categorize these satellites: minisatellite (500–100 kg), microsatellite (below 100 kg), nanosatellite (below 10 kg).
- Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.
- Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications.Very little is known about the full power of these satellites, as governments who operate them usually keep information pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.
- Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc. (See especially Earth Observing System.)
- Space stations are man-made structures that are designed for human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing facilities — instead, other vehicles are used as transport to and from the station. Space stations are designed for medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even years.
- Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a tether.
- Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather and climate.[13]
[edit] Orbit types
Main article:
List of orbits
Various earth orbits to scale; cyan represents low earth orbit, yellow represents medium earth orbit, the black dashed line represents geosynchronous orbit, the green dash-dot line the orbit of
Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and the red dotted line the orbit of the
International Space Station (ISS).
The first satellite,
Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around
Earth and was therefore in
geocentric orbit. By far this is the most common type of orbit with approximately 2456 artificial satellites orbiting the
Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their
altitude,
inclination and
eccentricity.
The commonly used altitude classifications are
Low Earth Orbit (LEO),
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and
High Earth Orbit (HEO). Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2000 km, and Medium Earth Orbit is any orbit higher than that but still below the altitude for
geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km. High Earth Orbit is any orbit higher than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.
[edit] Centric classifications
[edit] Altitude classifications
Orbital Altitudes of several significant satellites of earth.
[edit] Inclination classifications
[edit] Eccentricity classifications
[edit] Synchronous classifications
[edit] Special classifications
[edit] Pseudo-orbit classifications
[edit] Satellite Modules
The satellite’s functional versatility is imbedded within its technical components and its operations characteristics. Looking at the “anatomy” of a typical satellite, one discovers two modules.
[11] Note that some novel architectural concepts such as
Fractionated Spacecraft somewhat upset this taxonomy.
[edit] Spacecraft bus or service module
This
bus module consist of the following subsystems:
- The Structural Subsystems
The structural subsystem provides the mechanical base structure, shields the satellite from extreme temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage, and controls the satellite’s spin functions.
- The Telemetry Subsystems (aka Command and Data Handling, C&DH)
The telemetry subsystem monitors the on-board equipment operations, transmits equipment operation data to the earth control station, and receives the earth control station’s commands to perform equipment operation adjustments.
The power subsystem consists of solar panels and backup batteries that generate power when the satellite passes into the earth’s shadow. Nuclear power sources (
Radioisotope thermoelectric generators) have been used in several successful satellite programs including the
Nimbus program (1964-1978).
[15]
- The Thermal Control Subsystems
The thermal control subsystem helps protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the satellite’s body (e.g.
Optical Solar Reflector)
- The Attitude and Orbit Controlled Control Subsystems
The attitude and orbit controlled subsystem consists of small rocket thrusters that keep the satellite in the correct orbital position and keep antennas positioning in the right directions.
[edit] Communication payload
The second major module is the communication payload, which is made up of transponders. A transponders is capable of :
- Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite transmission stations (antennas).
- Amplifying received radio signals
- Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas for retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations (antennas).
[edit] End of life
When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a
graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite
Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958,
Vanguard 1, the 4th manmade satellite put in
Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009.
[16]
Instead of being de-orbited, most satellites are either left in their current orbit or moved to a graveyard orbit.
[17] As of 2002, the FCC now requires all geostationary satellites to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life prior to launch.
[18]
[edit] Launch-capable countries
This list includes countries with an independent capability to place satellites in orbit, including production of the necessary launch vehicle. Note: many more countries have the capability to design and build satellites but are unable to launch them, instead relying on foreign launch services. This list does not consider those numerous countries, but only lists those capable of launching satellites indigenously, and the date this capability was first demonstrated. Does not include consortium satellites or multi-national satellites.
[edit] Notes
- Russia and Ukraine were parts of the Soviet Union and thus inherited their launch capability without the need to develop it indigenously. Through Soviet Union they also are on the number one position in this list of accomplishments.
- France, United Kingdom launched their first satellites by own launchers from foreign spaceports.
- North Korea (1998) and Iraq (1989) have claimed orbital launches (satellite and warhead accordingly), but these claims are unconfirmed.
- In addition to the above, countries such as South Africa, Spain, Italy, Germany, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Egypt and private companies such as OTRAG, have developed their own launchers, but have not had a successful launch.
- As of 2009, only eight countries from the list above ( Russia and Ukraine instead of USSR, also USA, Japan, China, India, Israel, and Iran) and one regional organization (the European Space Agency, ESA) have independently launched satellites on their own indigenously developed launch vehicles. (The launch capabilities of the United Kingdom and France now fall under the ESA.)
- Several other countries, including South Korea, Brazil, Pakistan, Romania, Taiwan, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Australia, Malaysia[citation needed] and Turkey, are at various stages of development of their own small-scale launcher capabilities.
- South Korea launched a KSLV rocket (created with assistance of Russia) in 25 August 2009, but it failed to put satellite STSAT-2 into precise orbit and the satellite did not start to function.
- North Korea claimed a launch in April 2009, but U.S. and South Korean defense officials and weapons experts later reported that the rocket failed to send a satellite into orbit, if that was the goal. [19][20] The United States, Japan and South Korea believe this was actually a ballistic missile test, which is a claim also made after North Korea's 1998 satellite launch, and later rejected.
[edit] Launch capable private entities
- Orbital Sciences Corporation is conducting launches using its Taurus I rocket.
- On September 28, 2008, the private aerospace firm SpaceX successfully launched its Falcon 1 rocket in to orbit. This marked the first time that a privately built liquid-fueled booster was able to reach orbit.[21] The rocket carried a prism shaped 1.5 m (5 ft) long payload mass simulator that was set into orbit. The dummy satellite, known as Ratsat, will remain in orbit for between five and ten years before burning up in the atmosphere.[21]
A few other
private companies are capable of
sub-orbital launches.
[edit] First satellites of countries
While
Canada was the third country to build a satellite which was launched into space,
[25] it was launched aboard a U.S. rocket from a U.S. spaceport. The same goes for
Australia, who launched on-board a donated
Redstone rocket. The first Italian-launched was
San Marco 1, launched on 15 December 1964 on a U.S.
Scout rocket from Wallops Island (VA,USA) with an Italian Launch Team trained by NASA.
[26] Australia's launch project (
WRESAT) involved a donated U.S. missile and U. S. support staff as well as a joint launch facility with the
United Kingdom.
[27]
[edit] Planned first satellites
Azerbaijan is developing its space satellite Azerspace. According to the approved plan, Azerspace satellite will be launched into orbit in 2011.[28]
Bangladesh announced in 2009 that it intends to launch its first satellite into space by 2011.[29]
Croatia has a goal to construct a satellite by 2013-2014. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by foreign provider.[30]
Sri Lanka has a goal to construct two satelites. Sri Lankan Telecommunications Regulatory Commission has signed an agreement with Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd to get relevant help and resources. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by foreign provider.[31][32]
Peru is developing its space satellite with the National Engineering University, called Chasqui 1. The nano-satellite will be launched into orbit by 2010, and will have an expected 60 day lifespan. Photographing the Amazon to register current levels of deforestation, and taking infrared measurements will be its primary goal.
[edit] Attacks on satellites
In recent times satellites have been hacked by militant organizations to broadcast propaganda and to pilfer classified information from military communication networks.
[33][34]
Satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from earth.
Russia, the
United States and
China have demonstrated the ability to eliminate satellites.
[35] In 2007 the
Chinese military shot down an aging weather satellite,
[35] followed by the
US Navy shooting down a
defunct spy satellite in February 2008.
[36]
[edit] Jamming
Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions they are prone to
jamming by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming,
[37][38] but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.
[39][40] It is trivial to transmit a carrier to a geostationary satellite and thus interfere with any other users of the transponder. It is common on commercial satellite space for earth stations to transmit at the wrong time or on the wrong frequency and dual illuminate the transponder rendering the frequency unusable. Satellite operators now have sophisticated monitoring that enables them to pin point the source of any carrier and manage the transponder space effectively.
[edit] Satellite Services
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ "Rockets in Science Fiction (Late 19th Century)". Marshall Space Flight Center. http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocketry/tl4.html. Retrieved 2008-11-21.
- ^ Everett Franklin Bleiler; Richard Bleiler (1991). Science-fiction, the Early Years. Kent State University Press. pp. 325. ISBN 978-0873384162.
- ^ Richard Rhodes (2000). Visions of Technology. Simon & Schuster. pp. 160. ISBN 978-0684863115.
- ^ "Kerim Kerimov", Encyclopædia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/914879/Kerim-Kerimov, retrieved 2008-10-12
- ^ "A Brief History of Animals in Space". NASA. http://history.nasa.gov/animals.html. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
- ^ "Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship". RAND. http://www.rand.org/pubs/special_memoranda/SM11827/index.html. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ Alfred Rosenthal (1968). Venture Into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. pp. 15.
- ^ Alicia Chang. "50th anniversary of first U.S. satellite launch celebrated". Associated Press. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2008/01/30/state/n151715S68.DTL. Retrieved 2008-11-21.
- ^ David S. F. Portree; Joseph P. Loftus, Jr (1999). "Orbital Debris: A Chronology". Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. pp. 18. http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TP-1999-208856.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-21.
- ^ "Orbital Debris Education Package". Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/EducationPackage.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ a b Grant, A.; Meadows, J. (2004). Communication Technology Update (ninth edition ed.). Focal Press. pp. 284. ISBN 0240806409.
- ^ "Workshop on the Use of Microsatellite Technologies". United Nations. 2008. pp. 6. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/ac105/AC105_903E.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ "Earth Observations from Space". National Academy of Science. 2007. http://dels.nas.edu/dels/rpt_briefs/earth_observations_final.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ James Oberg (July 1984). "Pearl Harbor In Space". Omni Magazine. pp. 42–44. http://www.jamesoberg.com/pearl.html. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ George Schmidt; Mike Houts. "Radioisotope-based Nuclear Power Strategy for Exploration Systems Development". Marshall Space Flight Center. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/schmidtstaif06.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
- ^ "U.S. Space Objects Registry". http://169.253.2.103/oes/search/index.cfm?fuseaction=search.display.
- ^ "Conventional Disposal Method: Rockets and Graveyard Orbits". http://www.tethers.com/OrbitalDebris.html.
- ^ "FCC Enters Orbital Debris Debate". http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_040628.html.
- ^ "North Korean Missile Launch Was a Failure, Experts Say". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/world/asia/06korea.html?hp. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
- ^ "NORAD and USNORTHCOM monitor North Korean launch". United States Northern Command. http://www.northcom.mil/News/2009/040509.html. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
- ^ a b Tariq Malik. "SpaceX Successfully Launches Falcon 1 Rocket Into Orbit". Space.com. http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/080928-spacex-falcon1-fourthtest.html. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
- ^ "First time in History". The Satellite Encyclopedia. http://www.tbs-satellite.com/tse/online/thema_first.html. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ "SATCAT Boxscore". celestrak.com. http://www.celestrak.com/satcat/boxscore.asp. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
- ^ India launches Switzerland's first satellite
- ^ Daphne Burleson (2005). Space Programs Outside the United States. McFarland & Company. pp. 43. ISBN 978-0786418527.
- ^ Brian Harvey (2003). Europe's Space Programme. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 114. ISBN 978-1852337223.
- ^ Mike Gruntman (2004). Blazing the Trail. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. pp. 426. ISBN 978-1563477058.
- ^ U.S Company to present model of Azerbaijani national satellite
- ^ http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=115761
- ^ "Vremenik". http://www.astronautika.com/vremenik.
- ^ "SSTL Contracted to Establish Sri Lanka Space Agency". http://www.satellitetoday.com/st/topnews/SSTL-Contracted-to-Establish-Sri-Lanka-Space-Agency_32873.html. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
- ^ "SSTL contracted to establish Sri Lanka Space Agency". http://www.adaderana.lk/news.php?nid=6132. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
- ^ Dan Morrill. "Hack a Satellite while it is in orbit". ITtoolbox. http://blogs.ittoolbox.com/security/dmorrill/archives/hack-a-satellite-while-it-is-in-orbit-15690. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
- ^ "AsiaSat accuses Falungong of hacking satellite signals". Press Trust of India. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-5205866_ITM. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
- ^ a b William J. Broad; David E. Sanger (2007). "China Tests Anti-Satellite Weapon, Unnerving U.S.". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/18/world/asia/18cnd-china.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all&oref=slogin. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
- ^ "Navy Missile Successful as Spy Satellite Is Shot Down". Popular Mechanics. 2008. http://www.popularmechanics.com/blogs/science_news/4251430.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
- ^ Jeremy Singer (2003). "U.S.-Led Forces Destroy GPS Jamming Systems in Iraq". Space.com. http://www.space.com/news/gps_iraq_030325.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
- ^ Bob Brewin (2003). "Homemade GPS jammers raise concerns". Computerworld. http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,77702,00.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
- ^ "Iran government jamming exile satellite TV". Iran Focus. 2008. http://www.iranfocus.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=2852. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
- ^ Peter de Selding (2007). "Libya Pinpointed as Source of Months-Long Satellite Jamming in 2006". Space.com. http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_070409.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
Feature your best pic on the Shareapic home page in March 2010!
Back Up Your Pics and Files!
Payment Announcement - 1-2-2010
Earn More with Bidvertiser!
My most popular pics
